Christina Simone
76-100m
Geoffrey Sauer
12/6/96

Problems in the American Education System which Contribute to Illiteracy

The education that American students have been receiving has not met the rising standards of literacy in the world. The root of the problem lies with the government, school curriculae, and the way community problems are dealt with in the school system. The decentralized structure of the American system is an important factor in the analysis of literacy standards and measurements. This contrasts with unified systems in Europe, where in some nations, 90% of the people are literate (Jones, Kish, Lindberg 400). I assert that literacy rates are directly related to the structure of the educational system and government funding.

A significant characteristic of education in the United States is that it is an extremely decentralized system. Federal, state, and local governments share varying degrees of responsibility for its administrations and regulation (Valverde 6539). All states require children to attend school, and each state accordingly sets up their system of public schools, and makes their own legislation dealing with education. Systems in each state provide facilities for all levels of education where parents have the right to decide the type of schooling they desire for their youngsters. The majority of states have transferred a large amount of control to local governing bodies known as "local school boards," which usually set the educational standards, distribute public funds, award scholarships, and incorporate colleges and universities for allocation in the state public and private. Congress has the power to provide for the "general welfare of the United States," so it deals with educational matters that affect Americans as a whole:

All three branches of the federal government have been extremely active, especially after the Second World War, in educational policy-making. The federal government has participated in efforts to racially desegregate schools, equalize school financial allocations, provide access to education for poor and handicapped children, and to satisfy new public pressures for increased quality and accountability in schools." (Valverde 6539)

Countries differ in the kind of education they provide and the amount of schooling they require. They also vary in their ability to provide teachers and schools, and in their method of controlling and supporting education. Many developing countries have low literacy rates as a result of a shortage of teachers and classrooms due to a lack of funds (Borrowman 92). Many children don't even receive an elementary education (92). This contrasts with developed countries where almost all children receive at least an elementary education and most receive a secondary education as well (92).

Most other nations around the world have an educational system which is completely or partially administered by a central government. Education in Europe varies from country to country, but the general quality of education in Western Europe is higher in the north than in the southern regions, due to the fact that the poorer southern nations can't afford to update their programs as much (Jones, Kish, Lindberg 401). In general, European countries contain some of the best educated people in the world (400). With the exception of nine nations, 90% of the people are literate (400). In many northern nations most children receive the same education until the age of 15 or 16 (401). Students may then take an exam to determine what kind of secondary school they will attend (401). Most of our college graduates couldn't pass them let alone our high school graduates (Shanker 14). These exams require a great deal of factual knowledge, as well as thinking skills and analysis.

Author Arthur N. Applebee would concur with the testing of thinking skills. In his paper, "Learning to be Literate in America," he asserts that too much attention is being given to the "basics," (which usually require only a surface understanding of material), and as a result of this exclusive emphasis, attention is possibly diverted from helping students develop effective reasoning skills (Applebee et al. 17). In order for students develop effective reasoning skills required for literacy, Applebee feels that instruction in reading and writing processes (which provide strategies for thinking about what students are doing) must be incorporated with actual reading and writing tasks, and that students must be taught how to use them correctly (18).

In our country, a tool which could be considered similar to the foreign exams is the Advanced Placement Test. However, only seven percent of 18-year old Americans take it and only four percent pass it (Shanker 16). Our A.P. tests are offered in less than half of American high schools and, unlike their European counterparts, are not required for university entrance. Since the European exams are well aligned with the school curriculum, students understand that working hard in school will have its rewards. This alignment of curricula, exams, and incentives does not exist in the U.S. Indeed, the test most widely taken in the U.S. for college admission purposes the S.A.T. makes a point of not being linked to any curricula (16). "Some states exercise a considerable amount of control over teaching content, whereas others permit greater freedom of decision to local communities and teachers" (Valverde 6544). Such a range in curriculum options makes it difficult for children who change school systems to adapt to new curricula and to the new school. Classroom time is often wasted going over previously learned items.

Voluntary national standards in certain subjects have been called for in 1992 by the National Council of Education Standards and Testing (Valverde 6545). An author in favor of central control of schools is E.D. Hirsch, who in his book Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know, opposes the fact that schools are governed by thousands of independent districts, in addition to being dominated by content-neutral ideas. Moreover, among academic offerings are numerous versions of each subject, corresponding to different levels of student interest and ability. Needless to say, the material covered in these "content area" courses is highly varied" (footnote in Hirsch 20).

Hirsch argues that in order for effective communication to occur, there must be the existence of shared background knowledge. he asserts that literacy is far more than a skill; it requires large amounts of specific information (Hirsch 2). He Hirsch also criticizes schools on the grounds that "they have not firmly insisted that students complete significant amounts of homework, an obvious way to increase time spent on reading and writing" (footnote in Hirsch 20). As a result of many educational choices and a lack of demands placed on students, the body of information which Americans share have diminished. Since the educational system is so fragmented, there is a lack of shared knowledge across and within schools (Hirsch 19 - 21).

Our educational system also has many problems not related to curricula which inhibit learning. Discipline problems exist in the classroom which range from being disruptive during class to possession of weapons. When children misbehave, lessons are disrupted, the teacher becomes upset, and the class gets distracted. "Studies and research suggest a reciprocal casual relationship between achievement and behavior" (Weishew, Peng 5). It has been generally found that students who do poorly in school have much higher rates of misbehavior, although there is also evidence that it is the low achievement in school which may cause, rather than be the result of, misbehavior (6). There are many variables related to student problem behaviors. Data from the 1988 National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS:88), demonstrate that, while variables not under school control (such as student's family background, school control, and grade span) are important predictors of classroom behavior, some school practices are significantly associated with this behavior (13). Fewer behavior problems are noticeable in schools which have positive climates (i.e., teacher-administrator cooperation, staff concern for and positive teacher attitudes toward students, sense of community, teacher praise, and positive expectations of academic success); positive perceptions of the school; small schools; and lower student-teacher ratio, among other factors (6, 13). In addition, empirical studies and analyses of data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) have shown that motivation and attitudes are important factors in students' performance in writing (Applebee et al in Mavrogenes, Bezruczko 235). Motivation has been shown to be related to family support, amount of teacher response to student writing, amount of homework, instructional support of reading and writing, more requests from teachers to engage in writing tasks, showing writing to peers, and less television (Mavrogenes, Bezruczko 235). It is within a school's ability to improve student effort, motivation, self-esteem, and school adjustment.

A factor compounding poor handling of discipline is that there is deterioration of security at many schools. Half of the supervisors of school safety are in danger of losing their jobs due to budget cuts. Because of poor leadership in schools, many situations are "covered up" and go unchecked since they are not reported. Childhood behavioral patterns combined with poor attempts by the school administration at controlling or modifying them is a cause of crime -- one of the most significant shortcomings of our society.

An unreasonably high number of schools face the problem of overcrowding. This can be dangerous and unproductive (Willen A6). Oversized classes (especially in urban communities) have reached 50 students in some high schools while many elementary classes have over 30 and 40 students where there should be no more than 28 (A6). To accommodate this problem, students' schedules are changed to equalize classes. This however, disrupts the normal educational process. Efforts are slow and time is wasted. Moreover, while transferring between class periods, there are so many students in the hallways that many of them are pushed and shoved. This is likely to spur short-tempered children to fight, contributing to the school disciplinary problems.

The reason why very little gets done to solve problems in schools is because there is a lack of funds. Many programs have been cut back and others are in danger of being eliminated altogether. There are already many shortages in schools: not enough laboratory space, equipment, books, and paper. Without enough money, classroom space becomes limited and it is not possible to have adequate teacher hiring. More classrooms become overcrowded and as a result, many students are forced into classes which are above their level. Thus the less advanced students slow the pace of instruction and make it harder for the higher ability students to stay interested. When students fall behind and fail, they become discouraged and are more inclined to drop out of school. Many researchers, such as Applebee and Hirsch, agree with this claim. Because of too many failing students, teachers are pressured by their administrators to give higher grades (Shanker 16). High school teachers especially are told to teach in any way that allows kids to "get through" rather than teach in a way aimed at getting students to learn the substance of a rigorous course.(Editorial:"Academic standards" 11A). As a result, many would-be learners "coast " through the courses and the overall standards are lowered.

Many methods are being offered to solve the problems in our educational system. A suggested method of solving the discipline problem would be to modify the present method of dealing with it. "Practices such as strict enforcement of rules, consistent disciplinary action, and fairly administered discipline have been related to less misbehavior" (DiPrete & Peng in Weishew, Peng 6). Also, students shouldn't just be reprimanded, there should be more effective communication to discover the motives behind the actions thus preventing future misbehavior. In the classroom, students should have a say in setting and enforcing those rules which would encourage them to act responsibly (Pierce 40). Rules about lateness and cutting should be tight and consistent. When behavior gets out of hand, special academies should be available to place them in, thus averting harm to other students. Troubled youngsters should be closely monitored before their difficulties turn into serious criminality.

Solutions for improving safety and security are different for each school but could include such things as hiring or deploying security personnel; using better communication equipment or door-locking devices; or having a system of organized hallway sweeps." To take care of security outside the schools, a new plan has been recently put into action in some areas. It would insure safe travel to and from school by combining the forces of the police department, transit police, housing police, and school safety officers. This extra security would also discourage loitering and vandalism in critical locations. Another component of the plan would be to have police officers trained to check for child abuse when responding to a call.

At an A.F.T. convention, delegates passed three resolutions dealing with school safety issues and violence prevention programs. One resolution calls for a National Summit on School Safety and Violence and advocates the adoption of a policy of zero tolerance for drugs, weapons, crimes, and violence on school grounds.(Editorial:"Congress" 23). Many teachers support President Clinton's Crime Bill (passed in 1994). It's a$30.2 billion package which targets funds on increasing police, tightening enforcement, building more prisons and offering more crime prevention and anti-drug programs. It also provides a ban on assault-style weapons and tougher sentences for violent crimes and repeat offenders. Of special interest to teachers is the $5.5 billion for recreation, education and anti-gang programs tied to crime prevention. Moreover, the bill includes a $1.4 billion appropriation for special courts to handle first-time nonviolent drug offenders, many of which are teen-agers. However, help must also come from anti-drug organizations such as the National Partnership for a Drug Free America. Money for the rest of the programs is derived from long-term reductions in employment by federal agencies. By reducing these problems faced by students and teachers in schools, more time and effort may be focused on correcting learning problems hindering the achievement of literacy.

One reason why many students fail their subjects is because they take little interest in them since they don't see of what use they will serve in their future. One suggestion to solve this problem comes from teacher Jean Delfiner. She proposes the creation of a parallel course of study where students get hands-on laboratory experience without the theoretical baggage and where topics relate to the real world problems which students face: job market, consumer information, health, and political awareness (Editorial:"Taking back" 6). As a result, more students will become interested in the classes because they know they will need the information later on, while a smaller percentage will fail, resulting in fewer dropouts. Under these circumstances, teachers won't be pressured to pass students who shouldn't be passing, thus slowly raising the standards.

The looming problem of overcrowded schools can only be solved with more money to provide more room and qualified teachers. Officials claim they have made large efforts trying to resolve the problem by forming new classes or adding extra staff. In high schools, a suggestion might be to add extra periods thus extending the school day to as late as 5pm. Financial support for public education comes from local, state, and federal taxes. State and federal governments are supplying more and more money to help keep public schools in operation. Even with increased state and federal aid, some schools have adopted a 12 month schedule to make the most economical use of school facilities or to offer increased educational opportunities. Some children in those schools are in attendance while others are on vacation. Perhaps growing national concern about international economic competitiveness and the decreasing quality of the labor force may provide impetus to move the educational system in the direction of the establishment of a national curriculum, at least to the point of more widespread acceptance of a set of general academic standards (Valverde 6545).

In 1990, the Economic Policy Institute asserted that the United States spending on students in grade school is less than all but 3 of 16 industrialized nations. "When only public spending is compared to public spending in these 16 industrialized nations, the United States ranks 14^th in expenditures on all levels of the educational system" (Valverde 6543). Some progress was made when President Clinton passed The Elementary and Secondary Education Act several years ago. It is the largest federal program for the education of disadvantaged students whose goal is to increase funding for education by $1.7 billion.

The solution for the problems in our educational system are only beginning to be touched upon by various federal, state, state, and private programs. More money should be provided for education at the federal level, and state and local education efforts should be enhanced. "Schools can influence family and student variables such as parental involvement (e.g., by teachers, counselors, or administrators initiating contact), student self-perceptions (e.g., through teacher behaviors, related activities/programs, or counseling), and educational expectations" (Weichew, Peng 14). It is essential for schools to concentrate on practices and programs which will raise student achievement and educational expectations, reduce boredom and substance abuse, divide the school into smaller units, improve school climate, and increase structure and parental involvement (14). It is not only necessary to aim efforts at one specific level of education but to all of them. For the colleges criticize the high schools for not preparing students. The high schools turn around and blame the intermediate schools, which then place the responsibility on the elementary schools. They, in turn, end up blaming the family for not preparing their children to learn.

WORKS CITED

"Academic Standards, A Long Time in Coming." New York Teacher 16 May 1994, 11A+.

Applebee, A.N., Langer, J.A., & Mullis, I.V.S. Learning to be Literate in America: Reading, Writing, and Reasoning. Report No. 15-RW-01, The National Assessment of Educational Progress: The Nation's Report Card. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1987.

Borrowman, Merle L. "Education." World Book Encyclopedia. 1988 ed.

"Congress Passes Historic Crime Bill." American Teacher Oct. 1994, 23.

Hirsch, E.D. from Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987. pp. 1-32.

Jones, Peter d'A., George Kish, Leon N. Lindberg. "Europe." World Book Encyclopedia. 1988 ed.

Mavrogenes, Nancy A., and Nikolaus Bezroczko. "A Study of the Writing of Fifth-Grade Disadvantaged Children." Journal of Educational Research 87.4 (1994):228-237.

Pierce, Cecilia. "Importance of Classroom Climate for At-Risk Learners." Journal of Educational Research 88.1 (1994):37-42.

Shanker, Albert. "Making Standards Count." American Educator Fall 1994:14-17.

"Taking Back the Hallways." New York Teacher 17 Oct. 1994, 6-11.

Valverde, G.A.. "United States: System of Education." The International Encyclopedia of Education. 2^nd ed. 1994.

Weishew, Nancy L., and Samuel S. Peng. "Variables Predicting Students' Problem Behaviors." Journal of Educational Research 87.1 (1993):5-16.

Willen, Liz. "Teachers Plead For Relief On Overcrowding." New York Newsday 28 Oct. 1994, A6+.